Vertosols [VE]
[Pronounced Vert-oh-sols]
Concept
Clay soils with shrink-swell properties that exhibit strong cracking when dry and at depth have slickensides and/or lenticular peds. Although many soils exhibit gilgai microrelief, this feature is not used in their definition. Australia has the greatest area and diversity of cracking clay soils of any country in the world.
Distribution of Vertosols in Australia.
Soil Profile (View type example photo
of Black Vertosol).
Definition
Soils with the following:
- A clay field texture or 35% or more clay throughout the solum except for thin, surface crusty horizons 30 mm or less thick and
- When dry, open cracks occur at some time in most years1. These are at least 5 mm wide and extend upward to the surface or to the base of any plough layer, peaty horizon, self-mulching horizon, or thin, surface crusty horizon; and
- Slickensides and/or lenticular peds occur at some depth in the solum. See Comment below.
Comment
In some clay soils it may be difficult to decide if sufficient cracks are present, or at the time of inspection the soil may be too moist to exhibit cracking. Also, in arid zone clay soils which commonly have high salt contents, the soil structure may be so fine and strong granular, or 'puffy', that it is difficult to decide if cracks are present or not. In such soils it is also obviously difficult to discern slickensides and/or lenticular peds. In yet other clay soils (up to 50% clay or more) cracks may develop but slickensides and/or lenticular peds are apparently not present.
Because cracking, slickensides and/or lenticular peds are essentially used as evidence to indicate shrink-swell behaviour, it is desirable that surrogate measurements be available if the morphological evidence is lacking or cannot be determined. See Vertic properties.
Suborders
- Soils with stagnant water on the soil surface and/or saturation of some part of the upper 0.5 m more or less continuously for prolonged periods in most years. The length of a 'prolonged period' is probably in the order of 2-3 continuous months. Evidence of wetness may be indicated by the presence of mottling and gley colours (chroma of 2 or less). Aquic [AM]
The dominant colour class in the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum (or the major part of the entire solum if it is less than 0.5 m thick)2 is:
- Red. Red [AA]
- Brown. Brown [AB]
- Yellow. Yellow [AC]
- Grey. Grey [AD]
- Black. Black [AE]
Comment
Of the soils entered in the data base, the most common class for the first edition was Black (40%) which is probably a reflection of the agricultural importance of these soils.
Great Groups
These may not all apply to each suborder, in particular our knowledge of the Aquic suborder is limited.
- Soils with a surface that is moderately to strongly self-mulching; when the soil is dry the self-mulching layer should be at least 10 mm thick. Initial drying may form a thin (2-3 mm) surface flake which readily disintegrates to a mulch on further drying. This process is accelerated by mechanical disturbance. Self-mulching [EI]
- Soils with a pedal (stronger than weak grade, blocky or polyhedral) A horizon which is either not or only weakly self-mulching, and there is no surface crusty horizon. Some soils after wetting and drying may form a thin 5-10 mm surface flake which cracks into irregular polygons (plates) 30-100 mm diameter. These may be readily separated and removed from the underlying pedal clay. Epipedal [GS]
- Soils with a massive or weakly structured surface crusty horizon 30 mm or less thick, often of lighter texture (lower clay content) than the underlying pedal clay (blocky or polyhedral) which is not self-mulching. Crusty [BH]
- Soils with a massive or weak blocky (usually > 50 mm peds) A horizon, and there is no surface crusty horizon. Massive [DF]
- Soils with a surface peaty horizon. Peaty [DW]
Comment
Apart from the Peaty forms, each of the above soil surface conditions tends to reform despite cultivation or surface trampling. There may be a problem in identifying the self-mulching condition in periods of initial drying, i.e. in assessing the stability of the surface flake which forms following rainfall. If there is doubt as to whether a soil is self-mulching or has only a pedal surface, it is suggested that the latter condition be recorded, i.e. use the self-mulching great group only for those soils where the condition is not in doubt. It may be difficult to determine the surface condition if a dense grass sward is present. In this situation it will be necessary to look for a patch of bare ground, or even to kill the grass with herbicide and return at a later date. Note also that large soil units bounded by cracks are not considered to be coarse peds. It is usually necessary to examine these soils in the moist state to determine their degree of pedality.
Subgroups
It is thought that the following subgroups will be required for most of the suborders and great groups. Note that some of the differentiating criteria are not mutually exclusive, and thus sometimes it has been a subjective decision as to which attributes have priority in the key.
If a diagnostic feature in the key begins more than 1.5 m from the soil surface it may not have a significant impact on the performance of the soil. Refer to diagnostic features in the glossary for guidance on the use of such features in the classification.
- Soils with a seasonal saline water table present in the upper 0.5 m of the profile (water conductivity >2 dSm-1 ). Salt efflorescence may occur on the surface soil when dry. Salic [EG]
- Soils in which sulfuric material (at least 0.15 m thick) occurs within the upper 1.5 m of the profile. Sulfuric [EV] Note: The sulfuric subgroup can be replaced by the following subgroup where appropriate evidence is available:
- Soils in which both monosulfidic material and sulfuric material (at least 0.15 m thick) occur within the upper 1.5 m of the profile. Monosulfidic - Sulfuric [IW]
- Soils in which sulfidic materials occur within the upper 1.5 m of the profile. Sulfidic [EU] Note: The sulfidic subgroup can be replaced by the following subgroups where appropriate evidence is available:
- Soils in which both monosulfidic material and hypersulfidic material occur within the upper 1.5 m of the profile. Monohypersulfidic [IX]
- Other soils in which hypersulfidic material occurs within the upper 1.5 m of the profile. Hypersulfidic [IZ]
- Soils in which both monosulfidic material and hyposulfidic material occur within the upper 1.5 m of the profile. Monohyposulfidic ([JA]
- Other soils with hyposulfidic material within the upper 1.5 m of the profile. Hyposulfidic [JC]
- Soils with a red-brown hardpan either within or directly underlying the B horizon. Duric [BJ]
- Soils in which the B horizon directly overlies a calcrete pan. Petrocalcic [DZ]
- Soils in which the upper 0.1 m of the solum is sodic and a gypsic horizon is present within the B or BC horizon. Episodic-Gypsic [GQ]
- Other soils with a gypsic horizon within the B or BC horizon. Gypsic [BZ]
- Soils in which the upper 0.1 m of the solum is sodic and the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is strongly acid. Episodic-Epiacidic [EP]
- Soils in which the upper 0.1 m of the solum is sodic and the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is strongly acid. Episodic-Endoacidic [GG]
- Soils in which the upper 0.1 m of the solum is sodic and the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is calcareous. Episodic-Epicalcareous [GH]
- Soils in which the upper 0.1 m of the solum is sodic and the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is calcareous. Episodic-Endocalcareous [GI]
- Other soils in which the upper 0.1 m of the solum is sodic. Episodic [BN]
- Soils in which some subsurface horizon within the upper 0.5 m of the solum has an ESP of 15 or greater and the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is strongly acid. Epihypersodic-Epiacidic [CU]
- Soils in which some subsurface horizon within the upper 0.5 m of the solum has an ESP of 15 or greater and the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is strongly acid. Epihypersodic-Endoacidic [GN]
- Soils in which the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is strongly acid and mottled. Epiacidic-Mottled [GK]
- Other soils in which the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is strongly acid. Epiacidic [GA]
- Soils in which the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is calcareous and the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is strongly acid. Epicalcareous-Endoacidic [GJ]
- Soils in which the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is calcareous and some subsurface horizon within this depth has an ESP of 15 or greater. Epicalcareous-Epihypersodic [FM]
- Soils in which some subsurface horizon within the upper 0.5 m of the solum has an ESP of 15 or greater and the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is calcareous. Epihypersodic-Endocalcareous [GO]
- Other soils in which some subsurface horizon within the upper 0.5 m of the solum has an ESP of 15 or greater. Epihypersodic [BR]
- Soils in which the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is calcareous and an ESP of 15 or greater occurs in some subhorizon of the solum below 0.5 m. Epicalcareous-Endohypersodic [GB]
- Other soils in which the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is calcareous. Epicalcareous [FY]
- Soils in which the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is strongly acid and mottled. Endoacidic-Mottled [GL]
- Other soils in which the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is strongly acid. Endoacidic [BL]
- Soils in which the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is calcareous and some subhorizon of the solum below 0.5 m has an ESP of 15 or greater. Endocalcareous-Endohypersodic [GM]
- Soils with a ferric horizon within the solum, and in which the major part of the solum below 0.5m has an ESP of 15 or greater. Ferric-Endohypersodic [JF]
- Soils with a manganic horizon within the solum, and in which the major part of the solum below 0.5m has an ESP of 15 or greater. Manganic-Endohypersodic [JG]
- Other soils in which some subhorizon of the solum below 0.5 m has an ESP of 15 or greater. Endohypersodic [BP]
- Soils with a ferric horizon within the solum, and in which the major part of the solum below 0.5m is calcareous. Ferric-Endocalcareous [JH]
- Soils with a manganic horizon within the solum, and in which the major part of the solum below 0.5m is calcareous. Manganic-Endocalcareous [JI]
- Soils in which the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is calcareous and the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is mottled. Endocalcareous-Mottled [HE]
- Other soils in which the major part of the solum below 0.5 m is calcareous. Endocalcareous [FZ]
- Soils in which the major part of the B horizon has an exchangeable Ca/Mg ratio of less than 0.1. Magnesic [DB]
- Soils with a conspicuously bleached A2 horizon. Bleached [AT]
- Soils with a ferric horizon within the solum Ferric [BU]
- Soils with a manganic horizon within the solum. Manganic [DC]
- Soils in which the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is mottled. Mottled [DQ]
- Other soils in which the major part of the upper 0.5 m of the solum is whole coloured. Haplic [CD]
Comment
It should be noted that all the Endoacidic soils classified are also Endohypersodic, with some also being Epihypersodic. Additionally, some Epicalcareous-Epihypersodic soils are Endoacidic at depth. It is not possible to cater for all these combinations.
Family Criteria
Because of the uniform clayey nature of these soils and their usual lack of distinct horizonation, several of the usual family criteria are not appropriate for Vertosols. Field texture in these soils may not be a reliable guide to actual clay content (see Field Handbook), and it may also be difficult to achieve consistent results between operators. Hence it is thought more appropriate to provide for a subdivision of actual clay content as determined by laboratory analysis. The classes used are similar to those used for clayey particle-size classes in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2014). Other criteria used are gravel content of surface and A1 horizon and soil depth.
Gravel of surface and A1 horizon
| Non-gravelly | [E] | : <2% |
|---|---|---|
| Slightly gravelly | [F] | : 2 - <10% |
| Gravelly | [G] | : 10 - <20% |
| Moderately gravelly | [H] | : 20 - 50% |
| Very gravelly | [I] | : >50% |
Clay content of upper 0.1 m (excluding any surface crusty horizon)
| Fine | [Q] | : <45% clay |
|---|---|---|
| Medium fine | [R] | : 45 - 60% clay |
| Very fine | [S] | : >60% clay |
B horizon maximum clay content
| Fine | [Q] | : <45% clay |
|---|---|---|
| Medium fine | [R] | : 45 - 60% clay |
| Very fine | [S] | : >60% clay |
Soil depth
| Very shallow | [T] | : <0.25 m |
|---|---|---|
| Shallow | [U] | : 0.25 - <0.5 m |
| Moderately deep | [V] | : 0.5 - <1.0 m |
| Deep | [W] | : 1.0 - <1.5 m |
| Very deep | [X] | : 1.5 - 5 m |
| Giant | [Y] | : >5 m |
1 Note that there is no crack frequency criterion as in the Factual Key (Northcote 1979).
2 Note: This is incorrect in the published book, ePUB and ePDF versions where B2 horizon is used instead of solum.